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Sankar™ -Dark ray Admin
Number of posts : 1067 Age : 33 Registration date : 2007-12-12
| Subject: Re: EE Notes Thu Dec 27, 2007 8:35 am | |
|
- Finding
economical methods for salvaging hazardous industrial wastes, ensure safety against known and proven industrial hazards and finding out substitutes for proven hazardous materials based on local resources and needs instead of depending on advanced nations to find solutions.
- Thus
it is the human community that is the cause and victim of environmental degradation. Thus survival and well being of human society and nation depend sustainable development.. To meet this we must ensure that demand on the environment from which we derive our sustenance, does not exceed its carrying capacity for the present and future generations.
What is Eco-efficiency?(World Buisness Council for sustainable development depicts this concept as creating more products while consuming lesser amounts resources and minimum waste production and pollutants. It was addressed in Agenda 21 of the Earth Summit 1992. It can be taken as production of “economically valuable goods” which have been produced in an “ecologically sound manner”. It is the relationship between economic and ecological data which is utilized in making strategic decisions and to detect and exploit potential ecological and economic improvement. Seven eco-efficiency elements are 1)save natural resources, 2)save energy, 3) emits less harmful substances.4)more recycling ability. 5) use renewable resources 6)Look for long lasting products.7)look for efficient and useful products. A Few Noteworthy Examples of SD 1. Wind energy in Tamil Nadu: -T N is ranks first in the country in the field of Wind Power Generation with the installation of 117 wind electric generators with a total capacity of 19.010 MW.through SD and it has emerged as a viable and cost effective technology. The first private sector wind farm of the country was set up in Tamil Nadu during 1990 and 61% of the National Installed capacity of the wind farms has been contributed by Tamil Nadu. The wind farms in Tamil Nadu have generated 6277.905 million units of electricity up to 2002. 2. Literacy and organic agriculture in Kerala: - Kerala stands in the forefront of Indian states in the matter of literacy and education. According to the census of 1991, the rate of literacy in Kerala is 94.59 per cent. This literacy rate is more than double that of the country. In 2002, the state government of Kerala, India, launched an organic agriculture policy initiative which is not only eco-friendly but also alternative face to face local market. Organic farming in Kerala is mostly export- oriented. 3. Barefoot college in Tilonia: - The social work and research Centre (SWRC) started officially in the village if Tilonia on 5 February 1972. The Barefoot College (BC) as the SWRC is called, was the result of practical experience and hours of work in the villages, weeks of meeting ordinary peasants who wanted to get together and live and work in a village setting. It was not inspired by books or by theories of academics based in urban areas. They invested more in people than in projects. The areas on which the Barefoot College concentrated were ·
Ground water ·
Education ·
Medical care ·
Women’s programmes agricultural extension ·
Rural industry ·
Appropriate technology (use of biogas, photovoltaic cell etc) ·
Animal husbandry ·
Communication. DDS in Andhra Pradesh (started a Green School in the project area [Manchar village]) Deccan development society(DDS)is an NGO which promotes sustenance in rural communities through developing seed banks, cultivation of grains (millets)through promoting micro finance in the Grameen Bank model, where money was lend to a group who were jointly responsible for the loan. *They have taken strategy to evolve a self-sufficient farm for a small family of five persons, to provide maximum food, fuel and fodder. *They demonstrate various function pertaining to soil, harvesting rain water, arresting soil erosion, the role of trees, wind breaks and legume species and a poly cultural pattern of food crops and horticultural species. *Certain micro-projects works (soil conservation and water harvesting) were also started by them. *Their clients were mainly poor people. CHAPTER—22DEVELOPMENT OF SKILLED MANPOWERNeed for skilled manpower. Man has to be skilled in occupational skills and also be trained ·
To understand our environment the implications of our activities on the environment. ·
For drafting environmental management plans that involve industrial restructuring, for providing support base for manufacturing industries. ·
Popln stabilization, integrated land use etc requires more researchers, scientists, workers etc ·
To manage the natural resource base for sustainable development. To acquire skills and insights to renew and maintain the life support systems. ·
To reduce unnecessary use and wastage of resources so as to save energy and prevent the overloading beyond the earth’s carrying capacity.(i.e) for short term benefits long term environmental and economic costs must be avoided.
- To excel
in the whole range of eco-friendly technologies (appropriate technologies )and for developning and applying these technologies mainly based on renewable resources and activities based on environmental economies such as pollution prevention technologies, recycling and use of materials and energy conservation, ecologically compatible housing and slum improvement, sustainability in agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry, biodiversity conservation and utilization etc.
- To
address and to deal with environmental and ecological issues.
- To
have sustainable growth in the field of biotechnology-led industry.
- To
exploit opportunities in order to succeed in the increasingly competitive world.
- For
the development of telecommunication and IT industry.
- To
attract international companies to become partners with the nations that possess IT companies and English-knowing Software Programmers.
- For
the growth of export oriented industries skilled engineers, technicians, managers, supervisors, machinists, tool makers etc are required
Skilled labourer is the one who gets proper training and education to work in a specified field and it is the ultimate goal of all social and economic development and the biggest asset a country can have. How to impart this skill or How to create skilled manpower.·
Retraining of the existing work force to equip them with specialized and up-to date skills since production techniques will become automated and complex. ·
Restructuring and reorientation of the courses to respond effectively to current and future needs of job market. Regular and close monitoring of the curricula of the educational and training institutions to meet the demands of new skills arising from rapid technological developments. ·
Computer education has become part of the school curriculum right from the primary stage to higher levels of education to develop software programmers in the IT technology. ·
Sufficient and updated coverage on environment education to be relevant to the needs of the industry, in the technical, business and interpersonal aspects. This equips the people with the competency to create or use innovative technologies, helping to achieve more sustainability in people’s lifestyles and activities. ·
Research programmes are there which deal with brown agenda i.e. problems related with pollution, chemical, biochemical, engineering investigation, technical development for waste minimization and recycling, resource recovery, effluent treatment and other environmental studies, development of instruments for pollution measuring and control, development of eco-friendly and cleaner technologies. ·
Ecosystem Research Scheme provides scientific knowledge and trained personnel needed to manage the natural resources in a rational and sustainable manner. ·
Education, training and information broaden the skills of the people. Forest education and training produce skilled forest managers to manage, protect and conserve the forests. ·
Various training programmes on wild life management, biodiversity conservation, ecotourism planning, wetland conservation and management and introduction of environment education in the schools and colleges(in interaction with UGC, NCERT) is conducted by Wildlife Institute of India (WII) Dehradun to produce skilled manpower. The Center for Mining Environment (CME), Dhanbad has various academic Human Resource development and RandD activities which include M.Tech programme in Environment Science and Engineering.
- In
developing these skills, emphasis should be placed on leadership qualities such as creativity, innovativeness and entrepreneurship.
·
Critical industrial skills such as tooling and fabrication of precision parts and components, precision instrument calibration and product design etc should be given to the workers CHAPTER---23ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITYThe role of individual and community in sustainable development is of paramount importance, because if every individual contribute substantially, the effect will be visible at the local, national, and at the global level, as the environmental has no boundaries. It is the responsibility of human race who has occupied the commanding position on this earth to protect the earth and provide conducive environment for itself and innumerable other species which evolved on this earthby maintaining peace, harmony and equity in nature. Such an attitude and a small effort made by each individual at his own place will make the whole environment clean and healthy. Individual and Community-based management enables the people to manage, plan, regulate and enforce the use of the resources in their specific places.Importance of individual and community participation
- Individuals
can be watch dogs to protect their own environment from the consequences of unsustainable projects.
- Action
of an individual can begin change first and to inspire others. Reduce dependency on fossil fuels especially coal and oil. Use public transport or bicycle for the movement of short distances or go by foot. Make use of biogas. Use only minimum required water and electricity for various activities. Plant more trees for healthier environment. Do rain water harvesting in your compounds and help others to do it. Encourage organic farming and making of compost
- As
a part of the community they can take actions when they see offenders who for their own benefits are damaging the environment for others living in the area.
- Better
cooperation among the community members as individual actions when done as a group will have a powerful effect on the negative decisions of an activity through press and electronic media. They can form a lobby to strengthen the monuments in their village, town or country.
- Increase
the local capacity or ability of the community to undertake projects and develop skills and knowledge ranging from project management to ecology.
- Helps
in population reduction programmes, removing illiteracy, having higher education etc.
- To
make others aware of the impacts of our activities and the need for protecting resources, need for following the laws. Use of eco friendly products. Cut down the use of CFCs and other harmful things by not using the equipments that contain these.
- An
individual can bring an environment offence or nuisance to the attention of the authorities.
- They
can follow environmental calendar to be active contributors to sustainable development Role of community participation in various sectors
- Ecosystem-Based
Community Forestry And Restoration: -helps in promoting sustainable forestry, economic development, restoration of the forest and the respective forest products, and community development.
| |
| | | Sankar™ -Dark ray Admin
Number of posts : 1067 Age : 33 Registration date : 2007-12-12
| Subject: Re: EE Notes Thu Dec 27, 2007 8:36 am | |
|
- Community
Participation in organic Agriculture and Bio- Diversity Conservation
- Promoting
Income Generation Activities to Sustain Environment Restoration:-
- Weaker
sections of the community can be focused to take up organic farming on marginal land and related eco- development activities like tree planting, nursery cultivation and micro- watershed programmes.
- Using
indigenous and traditional seed varieties to grow crops like wheat, pulses, cotton, millets, vegetables and fruits.
- Growing
indigenous herbs through kitchen gardens and hedgerows for their medicinal and pest repellent values respectively.
- Reviving
depleting indigenous livestock and poultry species of the region.
- Credit
management programmes provide various forms of financial assistance to enable farmers to raise native livestock, sheep and goat husbandry, with native poultry eggs and chicks for hatching and rising.
- Establishment
of compost producing centers, reusing and recycling waste in addition generates employment and income, which provide valuable inputs farming.
- Initiating
breeding centers for local varieties of livestock and poultry.
The farmers undertake surveys and document village accounts of existing practices, traditional
uses of biological resources, extinct and threatened indigenous species of flora and fauna, eco- problems, and development issues. This helps the community to understand the wealth or depletion of their resources. 4. Community can work for the cleaning up of ponds, other water bodies, streets and make others aware of the need for keeping the environment clean.
- In
the restoration of fish stocks and their habitats: -Starting volunteer hatcheries, clean-up projects in rivers, lakes and estuaries, in the hope of restoring vulnerable stocks of fish. It benefits the larger community-both human and non-human.
Some examples1.Anna Hazare a retired army jawan, started an integrated development programme based on water shed management, soil conservation, use of biogas, solar cooking devices etc in Ralegan Siddhi, in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra and today, the village which was leading towards social deterioration, is declared as as Urja Gram by the government. 2. Tarun Bharat Sangh made remarkable change in the Bhaonta Kolyala village, which was facing severe drought. Now by repairing the johads they could harvest rain water and now all the wells in the village were filled with water. Agriculture is prospering and milk production has increased by 10 times. 3.Sunderlal Bahugana who protested against the unnecessary cutting of trees . Chipko movement in 1973 in the Himalayan region. 4.Medha Patekar is leading in Narmada Bachao Andolanmovement where massive damming of river Narmada and its tributaries is opposed as it is supposed to cause severe ecosystem damage and damage to local people. 5.Rachel Carson, the author of ‘Silent Spring’ .The release of her book brought about public concern about the use of chemicals in the US and is considered to be the beginning of environment movement today. 6.Beej Bachao Andolan: - is a people’s movement for conserving indigenous seeds, for reviving or rejuvenating traditional sustainable agriculture and agricultural diversity. This began when Vijay Jardhari, a farmer and social activist of Jardhargaon, a typical village in Tehri Garhwal district of Uttaranchal, realized that modern agriculture was destroying traditional farming. Soil health was declining and farmers had to use increasing amounts of fertilizers and pesticides. Jardhari and his friends visited villages in the region to learn more about traditional varieties of seeds and they started BBA. This has now spread to many parts of Uttaranchal. The BBA has saved about 150 varieties of paddy, 170 varieties of rajma120 varieties of beans, 40 of finger millets and 8 of wheat. Principles of BBA1.Follow only traditional mixed farming and intercropping of 12 different crops in which each supports the other. 2.Only organic manures and bio pesticides (ash, cow’s urine, neem etc) are used as fertilizers and pesticides. 3.Monocultures were not practiced. 4.Created awareness about the importance of protecting indigenous seeds and multicropping. Significance of BBA1.Cultivating 12 different forms maintained crop fertility, reduced crop failure, provided protection against drought, and nutritional security. 2.They had a year-round supply of food. 3.Productivity increased. 4.Use of bio-pesticides improved people’s health. 5.More and better fodder has improved the health and productivity of livestock. 6.Helped women’s Self Help Groups (SHGs) to set up seed banks of traditional crop varieties. 7.The ecological balance in that area was maintained. CHAPTER—24ROLE OF NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES (in sustainable development) National Organizations 1.Centre for Science and Environment [CSE] New Delhi.
The center in spreading environmental education and awareness in India. 2. National Environmental Engineering Research Institute [NEERI], Nagpur. With branches all over the country. It is involved in monitoring and analysis of air and water quality in the country. 3. Natural Research Development and Energy projects [NARDEP] Kanyakumari. Involved in study and development of non-conventional energy sources in India. 4. Indian council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun. Imparting training and education on sustainable forestry. 5. Wildlife Institute of India [WII], Dehradun. Imparting training on wildlife cnsvn and mangnt 6.Indian Canada Environment Facility [ICEF]. This is a joint initiative of the government of India and the government of Canada created by the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding [MoU] between the two governments in October 1992 for the purpose of undertaking projects related to the environment. 7.EOSE Environmental Orientation to school Education. It is a scheme for spreading environment education through schools. Under this scheme there are 3 nodal agencies for funding voluntary agencies that spread E E. 1. CEE Centre for Environment Education established in 1984 for developing programmes and materials to increase awareness about the environment. 2. Uttarakhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), Almora working in the hilly areas of Almora and provides assistance training and monitoring to various smaller organizations located in 12 hill districts of the Uttarakhand. They create envtal awremess and give people confidence in their own abilities to find solutions. They also assist NGOs in the region and as a resource center for EE for training school teachers and NGOs and workbook programme ion schools. Local workers are trained to become community environmental workers. 3. CPR Enviornmnetal Education Centr (CPREEC) Chennai. Appointed in 1993. The center has network of about 400 NGOs in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Orissa and Pondicherry. It also has programmes for Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and Andaman Nicobar. International Organizations1.Environment Protection Agency [EPA]. It is an independent Federal Agency of the U.S. Government establishment in 1970.It deals with protection of environment. 2.Man and Biosphere Programme [MAB]. 3. International Union for the conservation of Nature Resources [IUCN] Morges, Switzerland. I4. World Wide Fund [WWF] of Nature Conservation. It is one of the world’s largest private | |
| | | Sankar™ -Dark ray Admin
Number of posts : 1067 Age : 33 Registration date : 2007-12-12
| Subject: Re: EE Notes Thu Dec 27, 2007 8:36 am | |
| international nature conservation organizations. Its mission is to conserve nature by preserving genetic, species and ecosystem diversity.
5. Commission on Sustainable Development [CSD].Commission on Sustainable Development was set up in 1993 under Economic and Social Council [ECOSOC] of the UN for the purpose of review in progress of implementation of Agenda 21, adopted during the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development [UNCED], held in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil 1992. CSD meetings are held every year in New York. During this meeting every country has to present its National Report on progress achieved on the themes selected for the session. The ministry of External affairs is the nodal ministry for the CSD matters.
6. World summit on sustainable development [WSSD]
was held in Johannesburg in 2002 South Africa to mark the 10th year post UNCED held in Rio in 1992. I reviewed the progress towards sustainable development and the commitments made 10 years ago in Rio.
7. Montreal protocol
The agreement drafted by the committee formed by the United Nations that calls for a stepwise reduction of CFCs is called MONTREAL PROTOCOL which was signed by various countries at Montreal, Canada on Sept 16 1987.This day is proclaimed as the International day for the OZONE LAYER. The agreement includes
a. All the signatories have to assess their consumption and production of ODS every year
b. All signatories were to phase out their consumption of ODS by the year 2000.
c. Only those developing countries whose percapita consumption of ODS was less than .3kgwere given a grace period of 10 years for phasing out ODS.
d. Establishment of an environmental fund, paid to the developing nations by the developed nations, to produce more ozone friendly chemicals.[Japan, U.S.A. and U.K rejected this plan]
[U.K is the top exporter of CFC. India joined M.P in 1992.Now there are 180 countries in this agreement. In India Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkatta are the top Ozone producing cities.
8.UNEP 9. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
10. Global Environment Facility(GEF)
It is a financial mechanism to meet the agreed environmental costs of measures to meet developing countries to help them carry out programmes to relieve pressures on global ecosystems like the areas of biodiversity, climatic change, international waters and land degradation. The facility supports International Management and transfer of technologies, which are ecofriendly. It is a cooperative venture among National governments, the World Bank, the United Nations Development Programme, and the UNEP in specific areas of concern.
11. Environmental Management Capacity Building [EMCB] Project
with the view of improving environmental appraisal process and to incorporate compliance of the already approved projects in decision making, the ministry undertaken capacity building programme in the areas of environmental clearance of projects, development of manuals and guides for the preparation of Environmental Impact Assessment [EIA]. Environmental Management Plan [EMP] and related matters are assisted by the EMCB projects under the World Bank.
NGOs help in environment protection and sustainable development?
· They act as major link between Govt.and community and carry out jobs at the grass root level.
· They are recognized by the govt and they can involve in the matters related to the envt.
· They can educate the community and make them aware of the bad effects of a projects to the environment and draw attention of international bodies about issues, that are of global concern.
· They help in mobilizing people in environmental conservation.
· Launching programmes that aim at the upliftment of socially deprived people.
· Providing system of information/ data storage and exchange as indicators of envt quality.
· Assisting other organizations in environment conservation.
· Financing or procuring funds for important conservation projects.
· Organization of workshops and training programmes.
· Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal was set up at Gopeshwar, Chamoli District, U.P. in 1964. They encourage forest conservation and the use of forest products for self employment and to reduce soil erosion by encouraging volunteers to build embankments in the catchments areas and to plant trees. The world famous Chipko movement was started by this organization.
· Some NGOs LEDG- Ladakh Ecology Development Board set up in 1983working in the Ladakh area to promote ecological and sustainable development harmonious with the traditional cultures of the area. They are encouraging the use of renewable energy sources, promoting organic farming and the making of handicrafts. They have contributed to the bann of plastics in the area.
· Friends of Doon- Working in the Doon valley and checking deforestation, illegal mining (lime stone), as platform for voicing people’s grievances, preserving and rehabilitating the envt of the Doon valley, its forests, rivers and mountains, provides environment education,, Afforestation activities, encourage the use of non-conventional sources of energy and execution of town beautification schemes. | |
| | | Sankar™ -Dark ray Admin
Number of posts : 1067 Age : 33 Registration date : 2007-12-12
| Subject: Re: EE Notes Thu Dec 27, 2007 8:37 am | |
| CHAPTER-25NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURESustainable agriculture is defined as the agriculture that balances the changing human need for essential agricultural commodities such as food, fibre etc. with the necessity of protecting the physical environment and public health, the foundation of agriculture. It integrates 3 major goals such as- 1.Environment health, 2. Economic profitability and 3.Economic and social equity(enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole). Need for sustainable agriculturePopulation is increasing and the demand for food is increasing; but at the same time the area of land available for cultivation is increasing due to chemical farming, urbanisation and human habitation. So to satisfy present and future food and fibre needs from less lands and have self-sufficiency in food grains Agriculture is the backbone of many developing countries and source of export earnings. So to increase the national economy S.A is needed. Intensive agriculture and modern farming practices has pressurized our natural resources and degraded the quality of air, land and water leading to the decline in crop productivity. Enhance environment quality(quality of air, land and water) and the natural resource base upon which the agricultural economy depends. Make the most efficient use of non-renewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate, natural biological cycles and control. Sustain economic viability of farm operations. Enhance quality of life for farmers. To maintain the health of the society Some of the major problems of agriculture or Factors that counter sustainable agriculture.
- Soil erosion because of the use of a) larger machines
like the high-powered, rubber-tired tractors which plough at high speed causing more tillage erosion.,b) geometric ploughing, c)compactness of the soil by the use of heavy machines which reduces the water holding capacity of the soil and rooting depth which accelerates erosion.
- Loss of
genetic and biotic diversity
3. Depletion of water and energy resources
- Chemical contamination of water, workers, food supply
because of the excessive use of pesticides and insecticides.
- Increasing pest and disease problems, as a result of
monocultures and lack of disease and pest resistant ones.
- Loss of fertility of the soil because of improper
agricultural practices
- Smaller profit gains for the farmers, which compels
them to shift from agriculture.
- Lack of skilled labors as they are turning to other
jobs and conversion of agricultural lands into land for construction.
Essentialities for sustainable agriculture. It includes adoption of sophisticated scientific approach that can maintain high yields. 1.Biological continued conservation of genetic resources is essential if food supplies are to be increased by encouraging genetically rich countries to conserve wild species of animals and plants. 2.Conservation of soil and water to sustain plant productivity. This can be done by different methods like a)Mixed farming. 2)Mixed cropping. 3)Crop rotation 4)Use of biofertilizers and biopesticides. 5)Integrated pest management.etc.3. It should take into account the topography, soil characteristics, climate, pests, local availability of inputs and the individual grower’s goals. Thus selection of species and varieties well suited to the site is needed. 4.Farmers in developing countries need fair prices for a produce and better agricultural infra structure. They need incentives to conserve soil and water resources. 5.Rewarding the farmers in some way for their stewardship of their land or for the quality of their products. 6.Providing better varieties of seeds and modern equipments at a low cost to the farmers. 7.Knowledge of the complex infiltration between crops( agronomy), pests and pest predators (entomology)to avoid the need for costly technologies and chemicals. 8.Clear property rights and land tenure systems provide powerful incentives for owners and tenants to use their lands in a sustainable way. CHAPTER—26GREEN REVOLUTION (word coined by William S Gaud in1968) What is green revolution?The increased production of food grains both in quality and quantity due to introduction of new and improved varieties coupled with higher inputs of fertilizers, irrigation and pesticides is known as Green Revolution. Dr. Norman Borlaug (Nobel peace price winner 1970) brought green revolution in the world by developing new high yielding varieties of wheat. Professor M.S.Swaminathan is the architect of green revolution in India. As a result of this there was a boost in the food production from mid 1960s to the mid 1980s at an annual rate of 2.4%. It was mainly the result of varieties of rice and wheat developed by the research workers at Consultative Group on International Agricultural research ( CGIAR) Institutes , (headquartered at theWorld Bank in Washington D.C .) in the Philippines (the International Rice Research Institute IRRI which developed the semi-dwarf varieties of rice)and in Mexico (International center for maize and Wheat Improvement CIMMYT producing new varieties by crossing Japanese semi-dwarf varieties with Mexican wheat) . Methods used in green revolution: 1. Replacement of traditional farming practices by modern high-powered equipments. 2. Use of improved varieties of seeds, which are disease resistant, high yielding and rich in nutritive content.3. Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.4. Increase in the use of irrigation facilities. Large dams were constructed which impounded huge quantities of water from perennial rivers and stored rainwater to meet irrigational and growing energy needs. 5. Double cropping system in which farmers could harvest two crops in a year instead of one, one crop based on natural monsoons and the other based on artificial monsoon in the form of huge irrigation facilities. 6. Providing subsidies to the farmers to buy fertilizers, pesticides and modern equipments. 7. Continuous expansion of farming areas.Benefits of green revolution1. Boost in the rice and wheat production which resulted in developing nations becoming self sufficient in food production. 2. Wheat and rice became cheaper. 3. Increased the quality of big farmers. 4. Lifted a large number of poor people (not poor farmers) out of poverty and famine due to the decreased price of wheat and paddy). Impact of green revolution on the environment.1.Impacts of High Yielding varieties (HYVs): -It encourages the practice of monoculture, which can cause total devastation of the crops if it is attacked by a disease or pathogen. Another effect was the cultivation of wheat and paddy (soil depleting crops) decreased the cultivation of legumes,(soil building crops) which helped in nitrogen fixation. The repeated cultivation of one crop depleted the crop productivity. 2.Impacts of Inorganic fertilizers: - (i) Micronutrient imbalance:- Excessive use of NPK fertilizers causes imbalance of micronutrients (such as boron, zinc, iron, copper, manganese etc) in the soil and adversely affects the productivity of the soil. Eg. The soil in many parts of North India has become deficient of micronutrient zinc due to excessive use of chemical fertilizers for wheat and paddy cultivation. (ii) Nitrate pollution: -Nitrates react with the haemoglobin to form non-functional methaemoglobin, and impairs oxygen transport. This condition is called blue baby syndrome or methaemoglobanemia, characterized by blue coloration of the body. Ground water contamination with nitrates also exists in many parts of our country. (iii) Eutrophication: - The process of nutrient enrichment of water bodies which leads | |
| | | Sankar™ -Dark ray Admin
Number of posts : 1067 Age : 33 Registration date : 2007-12-12
| Subject: Re: EE Notes Thu Dec 27, 2007 8:37 am | |
| to premature ageing of lakes is known as eutrophication. *The nitrogen and phosphorus
is washed off and reach the water bodies along with runoff water. It causes nutrient
enrichment of water bodies, leading to profuse growth of algae(blue green algae) and
may totally cover the water surface. This is known as algal bloom. *It may cuts of
oxygen supply to the aquatic organisms and cause the death of organisms. *The
photosynthetic activity of the phytoplankton is also affected and the aquatic organisms
are deprived of food and may die. *The algal bloom also releases toxins in water that
affect the organisms. *All the wastes accumulate due to lack of oxygen leading to foul
smell. *Navigation, fishing recreation etc becomes difficult.
(iv) Less productive fields: -Excess fertilizers affect the homeostatic balance of the crucial
bacterial action responsible for the cyclic transfer of materials between the biotic and
abiotic system and this resulted in less productive fields..
3.Impacts of pesticides and herbicides: -
(i) Resistance in pests: -Continued use of a particular pesticide help make it resistant to pests because the surviving organisms which escaped the effect of the pesticides produce the entire population of resistant individuals. Such pests that have become resistant to all types of pesticides are known as super pests.
(ii) Death of non-target organisms: - Most of the pesticides do not differentiate between a harmful and useful one. As a result they not only kill the target ones but also the non target ones like the insects that eat the brown plant hopper which is a pest of rice.
(iii) Biological magnification or biological concentration: -The phenomenon by which certain stable pollutants get accumulated in tissues in increasing concentration along the food chain is called bio magnification or bio concentration. Highly stable and non-biodegradable pesticides like D.D.T, other chlorinated hydrocarbons, parathion, malathion etc can cause bio-magnification.
(iv) Chlorinated hydrocarbons in this pesticides can interfere with the calcium metabolism of the birds which affects the formation of egg shells. Crackled and soft shelled eggs will be produced and it dropped the reproductive potential of egg laying to zero in many regions. Fishes are also affected.
(v) Some of these chemicals like EBD, a fungicide used on stored grains is found to be carcinogenic. Organophosphates which is less stable are much more acutely toxic and can cause eye and skin damage, birth defect, blood and nerve disorders. In pregnant women it can lead to increased risk of brain cancer, leukemia etc in children. In adult female it can cause breast cancer also.
(vi) Endocrine disruptors: -Many pesticides are endocrine disruptors, which can cause birth defects, sexual abnormalities, and reproductive failure. EDChemicals are also called hormone disruptors.
4. Impacts of irrigation: -
(i) Degradation of the soil:-Over irrigation of lands for higher yields of some plants, expansion of agricultural land and due to improper irrigation has caused waterlogged and flooded areas, making it unsuitable for the growth of plants.
(ii) Salinity: -Irrigation with canal water often contains dissolved salts. Excessive irrigation causes flooded areas. Under dry conditions, the water evaporates leaving behind salts in the upper soil profile. Salinity have adverse effect on crop productivity and can also lead to desertification..
(iii) Decrease in ground water table: -Over exploitation of ground water for irrigation has decreased the water table. Cultivation of paddy in Haryana and Punjab, where the rainfall is inadequate, utilize lot of groundwater to keep the crop field flooded with water. Cultivation of paddy in these states is mainly responsible for decreasing the water table.
5. Use of HYV seeds requires use of heavy irrigation and fertilizers, which has resulted in rendering large areas of agricultural land as useless because after achieving dramatic increase in food production in the early stages of green revolution, yields have been falling in a number of regions which once enjoyed its prosperity.
6.Sociological impacts: -The Green Revolution widened the gap between rich and the poor. The farmers who could afford the expensive agricultural inputs and also got the support of the State Government for irrigation and subsides in power supplies, low rate interest on loans etc became rich as they got profit, while the poor farmers suffered from the same plight they were in due to the lack of resources.
7.Reduction in genetic variability as geneticallynarrow varieties and breeds that now dominate agriculture have replaced a multitude of locally adapted varieties.
8.Poor infrastructure, high transport costs, limited investment in irrigation and pricing and marketing policies made green revolution G R technologies too expensive or inappropriate asset distribution.
9. Bringing large scale land area under cultivation: Transformation of forests and grasslands under cultivation creates ecological imbalance.
Thus, in short the approach of green revolution has only a narrow focus on production as it failed in its achievement because it destroys the very resource base on which agriculture depends.
Impact of DDT
1. Cause bio-magnification.
2. Toxic to embryos and can impair egg-shell quality in birds.
3. Human carcinogen.
4. Development problems in unborn children
5. increases the risk of breast cancer.
6. Highly toxic to cray fish, sea shrimp and many other species of fish.
CHAPTER---27
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL FOR CROPS
Soil is defined as ‘a dynamic natural body on the surface of the earth in which plant grow, and is composed of physical( minerals, water, air and inorganic nutrients) and biological (organic materials and living forms like microbes, fungi, plants and animals) components.’
Soil is one of the four prime requisites of life on the earth which supports all living beings on earth.
Different types of soil
1.Alluvial soils: -found in the coastal plains and river basins and are extremely fertile and support the bulk of the world population.
2.Black soils: -found in the volcanic regions and are rich in minerals.
3.Red soils: -also found in the volcanic regions and are not as fertile as black soils as they are brittle in texture.
4.Laterite soils: -found in regions having a steep topography and heavy rains. These soils are rendered infertile due to leaching.
5.Sandy soils: -found in deserts and semi deserts; dry and porous but can support agriculture with availability of fertilizers and water. Has over 60% sand with little clay and silt not exceeding 10% each.
6.Mountain soils: -confined to mountainous regions. They are extremely fragile for cultivation of crops.
7.Clay soil:- consists of more than 30% clay with more silt than sand.
Factors necessary for a healthy soil: -
1.Should contain humus or organic matter which improves tilth (air and moisture retention capacity) and decreases soil erosion, wind erosion and run-off. It is a source of food for the decomposers and provides materials for the plant growth. Soil with 5-15% of humus is best for agricultural crops. So it is known as the soul and heart of the soil. The process of formation of humus is known as humification.
2.Should be coarse enough to allow air pockets where exchange of various gases can occur, since the roots and soil organisms require oxygen.
3.Should be porous enough to allow water and dissolved nutrients to move through easily.
4.Should contain decomposing microorganisms, which are needed for the biogeochemical cycles. Soil organisms are called edaphons such as bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoans, earthworms, rotifers, molluscs, arthropods, etc.
5. A pH suited to the crops. Most crops require neutral pH of range 6.5-7.5. Soil pH ranges from 4.5-10.
6. Micro and macro elements needed for the growth of plants. The inorganic constituents of soil are clay, silt,( needed for holding water and essential nutrients) sand, and small fragments of the original rock(needed for making soil porous, for holding finer particles apart and for the easy ciculation of air and water)
SOM- Soil organic matter, which is considered as primary attribute of soil quality assessment. It influences many soil properties like (i) infiltration rate (ii) bulk density (iii) aggregate stability (iv) cation exchange capacity (v) biological activity. SOM serves a s a slow- release reservoir for plant micro-nutrients. It allows the infiltration of water and air into the soil, increases water retension by the soil and is important in | |
| | | Sankar™ -Dark ray Admin
Number of posts : 1067 Age : 33 Registration date : 2007-12-12
| Subject: Re: EE Notes Thu Dec 27, 2007 8:37 am | |
| maintaining soil tilth. It increases the growth of many beneficial soil organisms which enhance biological control of pests and plant disease. Role of soil biota in maintaining soil health:1. Soil engineers include the worms and termities, which help in mixing soil horizons and organic matter and increasing porosity.
- Helps in decomposition processes and nutrient cycling.
3. Helps in the break down of wastes and pollutants.4. They will protect crops from pest and disease outbreaks through biological control and reduced susceptibility.WHY SOIL IS CONSIDERED IMPORTANT TO CROPS?1.Serves as medium: -in which plants grows and it depends upon soil texture, organic matter, aeration, water holding capacity etc.2.As a source of nutrients: -needed for the proper growth and development. Plants take in these nutrients through their roots. Soil nutrients are replenished by the action of microbes involved in the biogeochemical cycles. The organic matter contained in the soil is a rich storehouse of critical nutrients(mineralizable nitrogen.)and also a source of food for the decomposers which is very vital for the soil.3.As a source of water and air for the plants. Soil holds water and air in the inter spaces of soil particles and the plants absorb it through the roots. Soil water may be gravitational, capillary hygroscopic or combined. Total water present in the soil is called holard. The amount of water that can be absorbed out of holard is called as chesard. The remaining unabsorbed water is called as echard. 4.Crop productivity will be affected if the soil is not fertile or is degraded. The economic well-being of a nation is intricately linked with the fertility and abundance of soil resources. Factors responsible for the degradation of the soil.
- Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
- Deforestation that causes soil erosion and loss of
soil fertility.
- Overgrazing that causes soil erosion and loss of soil
fertility.
- Improper irrigation system that makes the soil saline
due to water logged areas.
5. Improper crop patterns like the lack of crop rotation, mixed cropping, alternate cropping etc that make the soil infertile.
- Mining activities that cause water logged and flooded
areas that make the soil sterile.
7. Injudicious use of land like the conversion of forests into farmlands, replacement of low rainfall grasslands by wheat crops etc which cause desertification.
- Use of hillsides that have fragile and thin soil for
cultivation.
- Repeated intensive tilling of soil for continuous
farming using modern heavy equipments make the soil powdery and more prone to wind and water erosion. It also kills the microorganisms present in the soil.
10. Population pressure that cause farming to expand on more fragile soils.Steps for the conservation of the soil or for maintaining the fertility of the soil.1.Use of organic manures and bio fertilizers.2.Use of biopesticides and bioherbicides.3.Practising of mixed farming, mixed cropping, alternate cropping, fallow periods etc.4.Terracing of lands on slopes to prevent soil erosion.5.Revegetation of the degraded land.6.Control of deforestation and overgrazing.7.Contour bunding and contour ploughing.8.Adopting steps to conserve water which is very essential for the crops.9.Planting of wind breaks to prevent the crops from damage due to wind and also wind erosion.10.Use of proper irrigation system, that will not cause water logging and flooding.Pedogenesis: -The formation of soil is known as pedogenesis. Soil is formed by the weathering of rocks.Pedology: -The study of soil. It is also called as edaphology or soil science.Factors responsible for the formation of the soil.1.Nature of the parent rock. Clay from shales, Sand grains from sandstone.2.The topography. It is more in steep slopes and in plains and gentle slopes.3.The climate of the area. Temperature and rain play an important role in soil formation.4.The organisms in the soil create space for air and water to pass through the soil.5.The duration of time. The longer the time for the soil formation, the deeper it gets. | |
| | | Sankar™ -Dark ray Admin
Number of posts : 1067 Age : 33 Registration date : 2007-12-12
| Subject: Re: EE Notes Thu Dec 27, 2007 8:38 am | |
| . CHAPTER—28
IRRIGATION SYSTEMS, USE OF MANURE AND FERTILIZERS.
Irrigation system
The process of watering the crops in the field where rainfall is insufficient, irregular or falls only seasonally and due to the urgent need to grow more food for the rising population is called irrigation.
Depending on topography, climate, soil structure and level of technology different methods of irrigation systems are adopted. Macro irrigation is used where large scale use of water is needed
1. Canal system: -consists of elaborate system of man-made canals and its distributaries(field channels), which receives water from one or more reservoirs or rivers. In order to provide adequate water to all the fields when the water supply is insufficient, a rotation system also called water bandhi(intermittent water delivery method ) is adopted, so that each field or groups of fields are given water by rotation. This system is most common in fertile river basins of the world. Pakisthan has the densest canal irrigation system on which its entire agricultural system is depended.
2. Wells: -have been one of the oldest systems of irrigation and play an important role in harvesting water for irrigation. It is constructed in areas where exploitable ground water is available. They are of two types. A)Dug wells- common where ground water is not deep. Water from these wells is lifted by different mechanical methods or electric power and supplied to the fields through the channels. It is called lift irrigation. B)Tube wells: -Green Revolution popularized the use of tube wells. They are used for tapping huge quantities of ground water from deeper strata. Diesel or electricity run pumps are used for lifting water from wells. This water is then fed to the fields through channels and distributaries.
3. River valley systems: -is based on areas which have high rainfall in four- five month period. As a result, there is high run- off and discharge flows in the rivers during rainy season. This is followed by drying up during the rabi season. In the valleys and on the slopes of valleys perennial crops such as coconuts, arecanuts [supari] coffee, rubber, tapioca are cultivated. The bottom lands of the valleys are used for cultivating a single rice crop.
4. Flood or furrow irrigation: - In this irrigation several ditches are dug. Plants are sown in the raised beds and water is distributed in the entire field through unlined ditches or furrows. It is used for close grown crops like such as rice, where fields are level and water is abundant. In an extremely leveled farm some parts of it may suffer from water-logging while other parts remain dry. Depending upon heat, soil porosity, wind large amount of water may be lost before it is absorbed by plants.
5. Terracing: -Large steps are cut into hillsides and are supported by stone or concrete walls. The level parts are then used as small fields. As water flows down the hillside it is canalized to each plot normally by ditch irrigation. It is usually a labor-intensive technique and it makes difficult to mechanize the work. Moreover the walls need constant maintenance specially in rainy climates.
6. Overhead or sprinkler irrigation: -Water is piped to one or more central locations within the field. It is distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns or by low-pressure sprays so that moisture reaches the root end of the crop. This type of system is commonly used in lawns, golf courses, parks etc. The major drawback of this irrigation is that much of the water is lost due to high winds or evaporation. Irrigating the entire field uniformly becomes difficult or tedious. Sometimes water remains on the plant leaves which may promote fungal and other diseases.
7. Trickle drip irrigation: -It is helpful in dealing with salination problems and in conserving water through evaporation. Method :- Water is collected from a well or stream into a tank and mixed with appropriate amounts fertilizers, pesticides etc and this water is supplied through underground perforated pipes or pipes placed on the surface and so the soils do not build up enough to make water uptake difficult. Water is emitted through an emitter that release the water at the appropriate location. Thus in this system plant roots are continuously provided with water. It has gained wide acceptance in Israel, the US and other countries in the 1970s.
Micro-irrigation
Is a traditional irrigation system which was applied in row crops under cover, fruits and berries, home gardens green house and nurseries where small scale use of water is needed. Its advantages are
(i) Water saving,: -conveyance loss, evaporation, run-off and deep percolation are reduced.
(ii) Energy savings: - A smaller power unit is required.
(iii) Weed and disease reduction: -as limited area is watered.
(iv) Can be automated by adding fertilizers and chemicals.
Problems with macro-irrigation
1. Accumulation of salt in the soil which stunts and prevent plant growth. In areas where the drainage is bad and water table approaches the root level , the concentrated salt makes plant growth impossible.
2. Excess use of ground water and surface water for irrigation cause depletion of water and change of habitats.
3. Overdraft: -a condition that results when water is removed from a source more quickly than it can be naturally replenished. It cause the land above an aquifer to sink and fill the space once occupied by water.
4. Sometimes irrigation water which contains dissolved pesticides and fertilizers runs off the land at fast speed and carry away topsoil and gets drained into the rivers etc making them polluted.
5. Large area of forest is destroyed as a result of the construction of canals and reservoirs.
Factors noted for sucssessful irrigation system]
1. Good drainage systems, which keep the water table well below the root level using tubewells.
2. Allow water to flush through topsoil.
3. Knowledge of the ability of the soil to store water
4. Excess salts should be removed from the system in regions where is excess drainage
5. Whatever water is available in the arid regions must be used efficiently.
6. Proper managing of irrigation system
Sub irrigation involves delivering water from to plants from beneath the soil. It is usually done in areas where ground water table is near the ground surface. In this type of irrigation water is collected in ditches where water percolates naturally through the soil into the water table and reaches the plant roots.
WATER SHED: - is the area of land surrounding a river or lake that provides all the water which enters the river or lake .For e.g.: When precipitation fall on a water shed, the water is delivered to the lake or river in smaller surface streams or through underground aquifers. Water sheds aid in controlling the amount of water in a river or lake and also act as a natural water purifier.
INTERGRATED WATER SHED MANAGEMENT.
Involves the optimum utilization and systemic consumption of land, water and forest resources within a land, community or a watershed. It involves the continuous participation of the people living in that area. Operation of watershed management is ideal where the rain fall pattern is very short, uneven and there is no subject of minor and major irrigation systems to enhance agricultural production. The principle of integrated watershed management is the proper management of all the precipitation by way of collection, storage and efficient utilization of run-off water and use of ground water, by allowing the absorption of water in the soil and to control excess discharge into the springs and rivers. It aims at improving livelihoods and overall development of a community and its people. The management of a single unit of land with its water drainage system is called watershed management.
USE OF MANURES AND FERTILIZERS.
Use of organic manures and bio-fertilizers: -Manures are organic substances like compost, vermin compost, green manure, cow dung etc that are produced by the decomposition of plant and animal waste by their action of microbes. It is rich in humus and releases many nutrients into the soil. Organic farming is the practice of growing crops without depending on synthetic fertilizers or synthetic pesticides.
ADVANTAGES OF ORGANIC MANURES.
1.bind together soil particles and granules and such soil are easy to till as they are well aerated and have a high infiltration rate.
2.supply rich balanced nutrients to the soil and thus convert uncultivated land into fertile land.
3.are rich in humus which improves soil texture, and can prevent soil erosion by forming a cover over the soil.
4.both water retention and percolation in the soil is accelerated.
5.Facilitates the growth of soil organisms which act upon the nutrients and prevent leaching of major nutrients of the soil. They provide food for soil organisms, which help in making nutrients available to plants
6.Enhance the resistance power of the crops against diseases and pests.
7.Degrade toxic organic chemicals by the action of decomposers. | |
| | | Sankar™ -Dark ray Admin
Number of posts : 1067 Age : 33 Registration date : 2007-12-12
| Subject: Re: EE Notes Thu Dec 27, 2007 8:38 am | |
| 8. Do not change the chemical composition of the soil and even excessive amounts of it do not harm the soil like the chemical fertilizers.9. Saves money and improves health of the community.DISADVANTAGES OF MANURES1.Being bulky manures are inconvenient to handle, store and transport.2.The nutrients of manures are released slowly, hence are unable to keep pace with the high and rapid demand of nutrients to the improved high yielding varieties of crops.3. These manures are not nutrient specific, so are not of much help when a specific nutrient is required for a particular crop.4. The amount of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium is very less than that of chemical fertilizers (1/20 th).Types of manures.1.Farmyard manures: Decomposed mixture of cattle excreta (dung) and urine and crop residues such as remnants of straw and plant stalks used to feed cattles, and it contain .5% N, .15% P pentaoxide and .5%K2O. It not only supplies a large quantity of macro and micro- nutrients but also improves the physio-chemical and biological properties and soil health.2.Compost: also called synthetic manure is prepared from farmyard waste and town refuge like sewage waste. It is allowed to decompose by the action of aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms (such as bacteria, fungi and actinomyces)and it may take 3-6 months before it is ready for use.3.Green manure refers to the use of under plant material to improve the soil fertility. It is done by growing plants like sweet clover, red clover, alfalfa etc belonging to the leguminous family, which are plowed into the soil during spring before the summer crops are grown. It gives the plant the required quantity of nitrogen. 4. Bio-fertilizers are microorganisms, such as bacteria, cyan bacteria (blue green bacteria which are extremely low cost bio-fertilizers present in the soil), mycorrhizal fungi etc which are biologically active and bring about nutrient enrichment in the soil by the enhancement of nitrogen, phosphorus and other minerals in soil.Rhizobium is a nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the root nodules of legume plants. It can fix 40-120 kgs of N per acre annually, depending on the crop, rhizobium species and environmental conditions. Frankia is another N(most important of all nutrients) fixing bacteria in the root nodules of non legume plants. Azolla-Anabaena is symbiotic nitrogen fixing cyan bacteria, which resides in the leaf cavities of the fern azolla, and fixes a part of the nitrogen there. [The decaying fern plants release the same for the utilization of the rice plants. During harvest when the field is dry the fern functions as green manure, decomposing and enriching the field for the next crop. Acetobacter for sugar cane onlyCertain microorganisms (phophatika)convert insoluble forms of soil phosphorus into soluble forms so that phosphorus is easily available to plants.Benefits of bio-fertilizers:1.Aid in replenishing and maintaining long-term soil fertility by providing optimal conditions for soil biological activity.2.Degrade toxic organic chemicals by the action of decomposers.3.Interact with other soil organisms and biodegradable components in the soil to supply essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, cupper etc.4.Provide protection against diseases associated with numerous fungi.5.Improve soil porosity, drainage and aeration, improve water-holding capacity.6.Promote the break up of unproductive soil, turning it into a productive growing medium. 7.Aid in rebuilding depleted soil.8.Aid in reducing soil erosion.9.Save money.10.Eco-friendly.INORGANIC FERTILIZERSThey are the source of nutrients manufactured commercially from chemicals. They are inorganic or organic compounds containing necessary plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.Advantages of fertilizers.1.They are in the concentrated form so they are less bulky and is easy to store, transport and apply2.They are nutrient specific and fulfill the requirement of a particular nutrient.3.Being soluble in water, they are easily released and is readily absorbed by crops.4.Contain higher amounts of nutrients and therefore used in very small quantities and satisfy the nutrient requirements of HYV plants and increase crop yield.Disadvantages of fertilizers.1.It gets washed off through irrigation, rainfall and drainage and reach rivers, lakes, streams and pollute them. It even polluted the ground water.2.Change the natural composition of the soil and affect plant growth.3.Natural processes that favour nutrient retention and transfer among plants and soil organic matter are not taking place as the farmers over dosed their crops with the fertilizers.4.Manufacturing of these fertilizers also creates pollution.5.After the run-off the crops will be deficient in nutrients till the next applicationApplication of chemical fertilizers.1.At the time of sowing- Potassium and phosphate fertilizers.2.At the time of irrigation-Nitrogenous fertilizers- either direct application or dissolving in irrigation water.3.Spraying on standing crop-Urea and other water-soluble nitrogenous fertilizers are sprayed.4.Timing of the application of fertilizers to coincide with the growing and flowering of crops is needed so that the crops will use fertilizers more quickly and completely. 5.Testing the soil and applying only the needed fertilizers.CHAPTER—29CROP PROTECTIONDuring cultivation crops are infested with a variety of pests. These pests include weeds, insects, mites, nematodes, rodents and plant pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, and viruses. The major factors responsible for the growth of pests include I) Monoculture practices. 2) Elimination of natural pest predators 3) increased immunity to pesticides and weedicides due to the continuous use of a particular pesticide.4) Lack of crop rotation, alternate cropping etc.5) Change in the climate.6) Nutritional deficiencies 7) Soil-moisture disturbances. use of unclean and inhealthy seeds.In India, the the Indian Crop Protection Association(ICPA) is responsible for crop protection.There are different methods for controlling the plants from pests and diseases.1.Pesticides: -Chemical compounds which kill the pests and protect our crops from the damage.The commonly used pesticides includea. Insecticides- used to kill insects (DDT, BHC, Aldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor, Parathion, Malatheon.b. Weedicides or herbicides-for killing the weeds eg, 2-4-5-T, 2-4-T, monuron, atrazine.c. Fungicides-for killing the fungi O Phenol, CAPTAN.d.Rodenticide: -Sodium fluro acetate, atrychnine.Advantages of chemical pesticides1.Protect the crops from pests.2.Increase crop yield3.East to apply and have immediate effect.4.Most of the modern pesticides are target specific and short-lived in the environment. So can be applied properly.Other preventive measures for protecting the crops from pests.1.Use of resistant varieties: -Plants which are resistant to these diseases and pests should be produced by biotechnology. Biotechnology can also be used in making plants that that have the natural ability to repel the pests, diseases and weeds.2.Crop rotation and cropping system: -- cultivation of different crops like leguminous and non-leguminous crops in successive seasons on the same piece of land.. eg. First year maize, second year cotton, third year groundnuts, and fourth year maize. It ensures that disease-causing organisms do not accumulate in the soil and help to increase the crop yields and increases pest resistivity in the soil.3.Mixed cropping: -cultivation of different crops on the same piece of land at the same time.4. Clean cultivation and summer ploughing. Warm and humid climate is more condusive for infestation of insect pests and diseases. Deep ploughing during the summer season kills pests, larvae and eggs. Changing the growth conditions of the plants and use of clean and healthy seeds also useful. | |
| | | Sankar™ -Dark ray Admin
Number of posts : 1067 Age : 33 Registration date : 2007-12-12
| Subject: Re: EE Notes Thu Dec 27, 2007 8:38 am | |
| 5.Use of Bio-pesticides:Are biological agents or substances derived from plants and animals used for controlling pests, weeds, insects and pathogens. The microorganisms used as bio-pesticides are viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi and mites.1.Pyrethrum is a substance extracted from chrysanthemums, a kind of flower.2.Oil from neem tree is another bio pesticide.3.Cry protein produced from the spores of soil bacterium kill the larvae of some insects.(This was the first bio pesticide to be used on a commercial scale in the world.4. Wood ash used to destroy soft-bodied insects.5. Mexican marigold is used to destroy many insects and pests.Bio-insecticides: -are biological agents that are used for controlling harmful insects. They include 1.Predators, which feed on the pests, can be employed. Eg. Ladybird and praying mantis used incombating scale insects or aphids which feed on plant sap.2.Parasites and pathogens, which destroy the pests. Eg. Baculovirus heliothis (a virus) can control Cotton bollworm, Bacillus thuringenesis (a bacterium) can attack the cabbage looper and entomophthora ignobils, a fungus can fight the green peach aphid of potato.Bio-herbicides: -are specific organism or chemicals that inhibits or destroys the growth of weeds at unwanted places without harming the useful plant.*Smoother crops such as barley, rye, sorghum, millet, soybean and sunflower, sweet clover and alfalfa do not allow weeds to grow near by because they eliminate weeds through chemicals.*Certain insects(cochineal insects) feed on the weeds(cacti). (Biological pest control which is the control of pest by another pest.) Indian mynah bird was sent to Mauritius to aid in controlling the Red locust.Bio control of diseses I) Fungi-Trichoderma species against root rot of ground nut. Bacteria-Psudomonas fluorescens and P. putida control the soft rot of potato.VAM fungi protect the plants against several pathogens by increasing the nutritional status in the roots, thereby giving resistence. It also bring about biochemical and structural changes in the host tissues and may act as a barrier to check the entry of pathogens into the host.6.Proper application of pesticides.Most of the modern pesticides are target specific and short-lived in the environment. So can be applied properly in correct dose and time depending on the pest.7. Use of pheromone trap and light traps.Control measures of the insect pests of major crop Name of the crop | Insect-pests
| Nature of damage
| Control measure
| Rice | 1.Gundhy bug 2.Leaf hopper | Attack during post flowering period Attack on leaves | Spray monocrotophos Spray monocrotophos | Groundnut | White grub | Feed on roots. Adult beetles feed on leaves. | Apply thimet granules before sowing | Name of the crop | Name of disease and pathogen | Symptoms | Control measures. | Rice | Blast | Brown boat shaped lesions appear on the leaves | Seed treatment with thiram solution in water. Spray bavistin at 10 days interval. | Wheat | Rust | Yellow, brown or black elongated spots appear on leaves. | Spray dithane solution in water at 10 days interval. | Control measures of the diseases of major crops.Control of plant diseases demands the judicious integration of all available techniques, biological, cultural and chemical, as each has its place in reducing the burden that pathogenic fungi place on the quantity and quality of the global harvest. Plant diseases are incited by micro-organisms, parasitic flowering plants, roundworms, viruses. In India, The Directorate of Plant Protection and Quarantine was established in Delhi. Quarantine is the best way to control diseases, which means to exclude diseased crops from the area of sphere in which the host plants are being grown. Some of the plant materials have been totally banned for import into India irrespective of any certificate. E.g. Import of cocoa from Africa and Sri Lanka is totally banned.Advantages of Bio- pesticides1. Ensure human and environment safety and improves our health.2. Control pests that have developed resistance to chemical pesticides.3. Does not harm non-target organisms and beneficial microorganisms.4. Are biodegradable and hence do not cause biomagnification.5. Do not leave toxic residues.6. Improves the soil fertility as the beneficial organisms are not killedLimitations
- Are non-target specific.
- Effective in only certain types of soil.
- Action is very slow and hence it can cause economic loss due to
the loss of crops.
- Not effective for all pests.
- If not applied at the right time in right concentration
application may not be much effective.
- High cost of bio-pesticide also is another limitation for the
farmers to buy.
- Some of the biological control by using pests to
control pest may becomes dangerous when the pest which feed on our crop pest multiply beyond our control.
CHAPTER-30IMPACT OF AGROCHEMICALS ON ENVIRONMENT.CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS1. Nitrate pollutiona) By leaching excess nitrate moves below the root zone and cause ground water contamination, making it unfit for human consumption.b) Blue baby syndrome: -High concentration of nitrites in infants cause blue baby syndrome, or methaemoglobinemia characterized by blue coloration of the body. The nitrites interfere with the oxygen carrying capacity of the hemoglobin and cuts off oxygen supply to the tissues. In adults the nitrites is converted into nitrates.c) Presence of secondary amines causes nitrosomine illness and even cancer in humans.d) Excess use of urea in rice fields promotes the growth of vectors causing human disease called Japanese encephalitis.2. Eutrophication: -It is the process of enrichment of water bodies with nutrients particularly nitrates and phosphates, which results in the excessive growth of algae and higher aquatic plants. This process cuts off oxygen supply to the deeper layers. Thus fish and other aquatic organisms will not get sufficient oxygen for breathing. Phytoplankton cannot prepare food because of the lack of gaseous exchange and this also affects the aquatic life. Aerobic decomposition does not take place leading to foul smell and accumulation of waste. Navigation also becomes difficult.3. Some fertilizers acidify the soil and deplete their nutrients and make the soil infertile ie.unsuitable for the growth of plants.4. Artificial fertilizers disrupt the homeostatic balance of the crucial bacterial action that is responsible for the natural nutrient cycles of the soil. They hinder the activities of the nitrogen fixing organisms and detritivores within the soil as biological nitrogen fixation is favoured only where soil nitrogen fertility is fairly low.5. Excessive application of potash fertilizers decreases vitamin c (ascorbic acid) and carotene content in vegetables and fruits.Some of the fertilizers commonly used: -NPK, urea, and mureate of potash, ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, calcium ammonium nitrate, super phosphate etc. | |
| | | Sankar™ -Dark ray Admin
Number of posts : 1067 Age : 33 Registration date : 2007-12-12
| Subject: Re: EE Notes Thu Dec 27, 2007 8:39 am | |
| CHEMICAL PESTICIDES; -
- These pesticides kill even the beneficial organisms present in
the soil such as decomposers, pollinators, predators of pests etc.
- They are highly stable and often enter the food chain
and their toxic concentration goes on increasing at the successive trophic levels and prove to be hazardous to the organism at the higher trophic level. This is called as bio magnification. Eg.DDT.( Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane)
- Organic pesticides, which are chlorinated
hydrocarbons, are usually persistent and is cancer inducing.
- Chlorinated hydrocarbons interfere with the calcium metabolism
in the body of birds resulting in the formation of thin-shelled eggs, which gets destroyed before hatching.
- Persistent pesticides when present in the irrigated water or
when mixed with water seep from the soil surface and cause ground water contamination. During run-off during rain it enters the water bodies.
- Consistent use of the pesticides and herbicides to
control pests and weeds leads to the development of resistance among pests and vectors leading to the formation of super pests and super weeds.
- Cause destruction of biodiversity and extinction of species.
- Affects the ecological balance due to the extinction of species
as every species is having its own significance in the food chain.
Some of the pesticides that are banned: -D.D.T (banned in USA in 1972), aldrin, dialdrin, endrine, heptachlorohexane(HCH) endosulphan, Benzene hexa chloride(BHC) EDB Ethylidine di bromide.CHAPTER—31ELEMENTS OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE1.Mixed farming: -It is a system of farming on a particular farm to sustain and satisfy the essential needs of the farmers. Mixed farming includes crop production, rearing of live stock, poultry, fish, and bee keeping (apiculture). The mixed farming system depends largely on the following factors:(i) Quality of soil (ii) Quality of live stock (domestic animals like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat etc.)(iii) Location(iv) Topography(v) Water facilities(vi) Available technology and(vii) Economic considerations.Some of the farming systems: -(i)Food-fodder farming system: -It involves growing food crops such as wheat, maize, rice, bajra and fodder crops like sorghum, oat and berseem.(ii)Agro-forestry system: -It includes raising crops along with trees. It combines agriculture with forestry. Eg maize is grown in the interspaces of Acacia trees.(iii)Horti-pastoral system: -It involves growing fodder grasses with fruit trees. Thus mixed farming is an integrated approach of farming system, which can help in safe guarding the sustainable agricultural production.Advantages of mixed farming; -1.It gives better income to farmers.2.It provides work to the farmer throughout the year.3. It allows more efficient use of land and other resources.4.Reduces the risk of monocultures.Disadvantages1.Farmers have to divide their attention and resources over several activities, thus leading to reduced economies of scale.2.MIXED CROPPINGIt is the practice of growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land. It is an old practice in our country where farmers used to mix the seeds of two crops and sow in the fields that are not subjected to irrigation or under rain fed conditions where there was risk of crop failure due to lack of water. The basic objective in mixed cropping is to minimize the risk and ensure against the crop failure due to abnormal whether conditions. Crop combinations used in mixed cropping.Some of the important combinations of crops used by farmers for mixed cropping in our country are:i) Wheat + Mustardii) Wheat +Chick peaiii) Barley + Chickpeaiv) Soybean +Pigeon peav) Maize +Urd beanvi) Pigeon pea + Mung beanvii) Cotton +Mung beanviii) Ground nut+ Sunflowerix) Sorghum + Pigeon pea.Criteria for the selection of the crops for Mixed CroppingFollowing are the main criteria for selecting the component crops for mixed cropping.i) One crop should be of short duration (early maturing) and the other should of long duration (late maturing).ii) The component crops should have different canopy height, i.e., one should be tall growing and the other is short growing for efficient interception of sunlight.iii) One crop should be shallow rooted and the other should be shallow rooted in order to tap nutrients and moisture from the different depths of the soil profile.iv) One crop should require less water than then other.v) The requirements of nutrients of one crop should be less than the other.vi) The crops should possess non-overlapping susceptibility to pests and diseases. vii) Introduction of legumes to promote biological nitrogen-fixation and increase protein availability.If both the component crops in mixed cropping are of same nature, there will be severe competition among them for the basic needs.Advantages of Mixed croppingMixed cropping has following advantages:i)No risk of crop failure. When two crops of different nature are grown simultaneously, one crop supports the other and there is no risk of total failure due to uncertain climatic conditions.ii) Variety of produce. Mixed cropping yields variety of produce like cereals, pulses or vegetables or fodder to meet the requirement of the family as well as livestock.iii) Increase in yield. Due to complementary effect of component crops, yield of both crops is increased. For example, legume crops have beneficial effect on cereal or other non-legume crops.iv) Improvement in soil fertility. If a cereal crop is allowed to grow in a field, it will deplete more nutrients. However, growing of a cereal crop with legume crop will help in building soil fertility.v) Minimizing pest damage. Generally crops of a particular group are more susceptible to a particular type of pests (such as weeds, insects and diseases) infestation, when different crops are grown together, changes of pest infestation are greatly reduced.INTERCROPPING; -is the growing of two or more crops simultaneously in the same field in definite row pattern. One row of crop pattern followed one, two or three rows of inter crops.3. CROP ROTATION: - The growing of different crops on a piece of land in a pre-planned succession is called crop-rotation. Depending upon the duration, crop rotation may be of following three types. Types of crop rotation
| Crops involved in rotation
| (i) One year rotation | (a) Maize-Mustard (b) Rice-Wheat | (ii) Two years rotation | (a) Maize-Mustard-Sugarcane-Methi (b) Maize-Potato-Sugarcane-Potato | (iii)Three year rotation | (a)Rice-Wheat-Mustard-Sugarcane-Berseem (b)Cotton-Oat-Sugarcane-Peas-Maize-Wheat | | |
| | | Sankar™ -Dark ray Admin
Number of posts : 1067 Age : 33 Registration date : 2007-12-12
| Subject: Re: EE Notes Thu Dec 27, 2007 8:39 am | |
| Points that should be noted while making selection of crops for rotation
(i)Source of moisture (through rain or irrigation)
(ii)Status of nutrients in the soil.
(iii)Availability of inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides. Manpower and machine power)
(iv)Duration of crop(short or long)
(v)Marketing and processing facilities.
(vi)Legume crops are included in crop rotation programmes to build up soil fertility. Crops requiring high fertility level may be grown after growing legumes. The crops which require high inputs(e.g. sugarcane, potato, maize, wheat and rice)may be grown before low input requiring crops. It helps in maintaining soil fertility. Generally crops of same family should not be repeatedly grown in the same field to prevent depletion of specific nutrients from the soil and building up of diseases and insect pests.
ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION
(i)Crop rotation helps in replenishment of soil fertility.
(ii)It prevents depletion of selective nutrients.
(iii)It prevents building up of diseases and pests of particular crop.
(iv)It enhances the production by increasing the soil fertility.
4.ECONOMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
*Sustainable agriculture requires a commitment to change public policies, economic institutions and social values.
*The food system extends far beyond the farm and involves the interaction of individuals and institutions with contrasting and often competing goals, which often change with new technologies and with political influences. It includes farmers, input suppliers, researchers, farm-workers, farm advisors, consumers, processors, retailers and policy makers.
*We should focus to increase the production of food grains without damaging the natural resources. Thus eco-friendly techniques are needed for sustainable agriculture so that our economic growth may also be a sustainable growth.
Areas where changes are needed
1.New food and agricultural policies to promote environmental health, economic profitability and social and economic equity.(modifying tax and credit policies, providing subsidies etc)
2.Proper land use policies so that prime soils are protected and development is regulated. It includes helping farmers to adopt practices that reduce chemical use and conserve resources, and proper education.
3.Policies and programmes to increase the social standards and legal protection of the agriculture labours.
4.Economic development policies to encourage more diversified agricultural production on family farms (crop varieties)as a foundation for healthy economies in rural communities.
5.Strategies to broaden consumer perspectives so that environmental quality, resource use and social equity issues are also considered in shopping decisions.
6.Creating new policies and institutions to enable producers using sustainable practices to market their goods.
5.BIOFERTILIZERS.
6. BIOPESTICIDES; -:
7. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)
It is asustainable long-term approach of pest control which involves the use of several tactics of natural methods of pest control as far as possible and using pesticides only when it is essential and that also in minimum concentration. It is much more complex than simple application of chemical biocides.
Its advantages are I) effective ii)economical iii)improves health of the community iv) improves soil fertility v)least harmful to the environment vi) decreases the dependence on chemical fertilizers
The main strategy used in the IPM is structural and the procedural modifications of the pest by reducing food, water, shelter and access used by pests.
The steps in integrated pest management
(i)Biological organisms or the products of biological origin are used to control pests.
(ii)The biological control methods may be accompanied with soil conditioning, rotation of crops and improved sanitation practices.
(iii)Planting a trap crop around a field or mixed with economic crop to attract the insects so that they do not concentrate solely on the agricultural crop.
(iv) A pest that control the pest which may be predator, parasite or disease which attack the harmful insect only. Since it is highly specific for a particular pest other beneficial insects are not affected.
(v)Under unavoidable circumstances chemical pesticides are sprayed using modified techniques in which less amount of pesticide covers a large area.
Thus IPM programme favours biological control methods, which are ecologically safe, target specific and harmless to other life forms. But this requires time, money, patience, short and long term planning, flexibility and commitment.
… | |
| | | Sankar™ -Dark ray Admin
Number of posts : 1067 Age : 33 Registration date : 2007-12-12
| Subject: Re: EE Notes Thu Dec 27, 2007 8:39 am | |
| CHAPTER—32APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN CROP PROTECTIONBiotechnology
is a part of applied biology, which uses living organisms(microorganisms, plant or animal cells) or their products for commercial purposes or to solve practical problems. It is multidisciplinary with foundation in many fields including cell and molecular biology, physiology, immunology, microbiology, genetics, biochemistry and chemical engineering. Old biotechnology:-involves producing products like curd, vinegar, wine, bread etc and other organic compounds like vinegar antibiotics etc where the natural capabilities of the organisms and cells are exploited. New biotechnologies:-involves modification or new combinations of the organisms using recombinant technologies in which desired gene could be isolated from an organism and transferred into another organism. The organisms with the foreign genes are called transgenic organisms OR Genetically Modified Organisms(GM crops). Genes are injected from one organism into a fertilized egg or into embryonic cells of another organism, which then becomes part of its DNA and is inherited by all the cells formed during the embryonic development. Transgenic microorganismsare produced to obtain new kinds of pharmaceutical proteins. It is now possible to produce genetic material according to our choice. These GM crops contributed significantly to the reduced green house gas emissions from agricultural practices. APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN CROP PROTECTION1.
.Herbicide tolerance in crops is now possible by transferring genes resistant to herbicides to the genome of commercial crops(rice, wheat, tobacco, maize, potatoes and vegetables) 2.
Vaccines to ward off plant and livestock diseases. 3.
Different types of cultures like hybridization, tissue culture, embryo culture, meristem culture and protoplast culture which are used to improve disease resistance in many crops. Hybridization: -It is the method of producing new crop varieties in which two or more plants of unlike genetical constitution belonging to same species or different genera are crossed together. This has been used to produce crop plants that are more drought resistant, disease resistant and frost resistant. Tissue culture: refers to the invitro cultivation of all plant parts (having desirable characters like disease resistance) including plant cells, tissues and organs under aseptic conditions. The basis of cell and tissue culture is totipotency. Meristem culture: -(i) used to establish stock material for ornamental plants that are free of fungi and bacteria. Systematic pathogens, present in the meristems (stem tips) will grow out into the culture medium when established in culture medium. These ex-plants free of pathogens (not disease resistant) are grown up, transferred to a green house and indexed an additional two times for systemic pathogens.(ii)Meristem culture can also be used for micro-propagation which provides pathogen free plant material (so that chemical control is not needed) that replace seed pieces which are often systematically treated. (iii) Addition of thermo therapy or antiviral compounds allows culturing of larger stem tips that are virus free and take relatively less time to grow. Embryo Rescue: -(i) To ensure survival of embryo that is formed as a result of cross between distantly related species that posses desired genes by growing them in artificial culture medium which provides the necessary nutrients. Eg, Etuberosum, a wild non-tuber bearing potato posses the gene resistant to potato leaf roll virus (PLRV) This trait was successfully introduced in tuber bearing Solanum by growing the embryo in culture medium. Oryza minuta, a wild variety which posses the resistant gene for blast and blight disease of paddy was crossed with the commercial line variety Oryza sativa and resulted in progeny that were resistant to these disease by embryo risk technique. (ii)Embryo rescue also allow recovery of plants between species where crossing barriers exist due to sexual compatibility. E.g. A gene encoding crystal protein (cry protein) called cry gene, has been isolated from a soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, and transformed into a number of crops. This protein is toxic to larvae of certain insects and thus provide resistance to the GM crops against specific insects. 4.
The shelf life of fruits of tomato variety Flavr Savr has been improved by blocking the native gene(with the help of transgene) which synthesizes the enzyme that promotes softening of fruits. 5. A variety of Brassica napus containing hirudin (a protein that prevent blood clotting) has been developed by transferring a chemically synthesized gene encoding hirudin. 6.
Biotechnology has also helped in the improvement of crops also such as high yield , high vitamin content(golden rice), high protein content(potato)etc. 7.
Biotechnology can be used in making plants having natural ability to repel the pests, diseases and weeds. 8.
Development of genetically improved crops which are adaptable to a specific set of environment (climate). LIMITATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
- Majority
of the developing countries have limited practical access to the tools and germplasn necessary to apply more sophisticated biotechnology research to their national needs because of the lack of financial, scientific and technological resources.
- Production
of herbicide-resistant super weeds. When copied genes from one species inserted into another may spread to other organisms (weeds) if it escapes that species may develop resistance against pesticides.
- Sudden
collapse of monoculture operations and valuable breeds due to calamities or pests or diseases. (So poly cultures are preferred so that there will be greater biological stability. In monocultures plants with disease resistance against one or two diseases may not have resistance against other diseases).
- Unintended
harm to the native species by thedominance of genetically modified ones.
- Introduction
of biological warfare through the creation of bacteria and viruses that could have catastrophic effects and initiate a genetic arms race.
- Opponents
of genetic engineering are concerned about the potential fro accidental introduction of new toxins, allergens and pathogens into the environment.
FUTURE PROSPECTS.
- Sustainable
utilization of genetic resources for food.
- Apomixes,
an asexual technology of plant reproduction that can provide economic incentives to replant harvested seeds.
- Generation
of higher nutrient levels (iron and vitamins) in nutrient deficient staple crops. Genetic engineering may also contribute to better nutrient balancing by helping plants provide some of their own nutrients for enhanced growth.
- Development
of crops for drought prone areas, specific crops for saline soil conditions and in many other situations.
- Making
unlimited choice so that farmers can select the crops suited to their soil condition, weather and regional choice for particular taste for certain populations.
- Pharmacrops,
a type of transgenic plant, which can manufacture industrial chemicals and pharmaceuticals.
- Bananas
that can produce human vaccines against infectious diseases such as hepatitis B; fish that mature more quickly; fruit and nut trees that yield years earlier, and plants that produce new plastics with unique properties.
CHAPTER—33MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURE PRODUCEAgricultural management includes all the activities, functions and services used in moving the agricultural produce from the producer to the final consumer or to the place where it is needed and also putting in form and amount desired (drying, canning etc) and having it ready at the time it is wanted. NEED FOR PROPER MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTUAL PRODUCE
- Most
of our crops are seasonal and are harvested once a year.
- To
prevent minimum loss of agricultural produce during post harvest stages like transport, processing, storage, marketing and distribution
- Prevent
short supply of certain vegetables during off-season and make it available throughout the year.
- Preservation
and supply of perishable products quickly and to travel long distances (international markets) while keeping their freshness and quality and to meet the needs of greater number of people for their varied needs and demands.
- To
provide proper price of his produce to the farmersbecause small, low income, elderly and disabled farmers find it difficult to sell their produce to the big markets. They sell their produce at the local market in a very low price or the produce may get spoiled.
Three important marketing functions in agricultural management are 1. Concentration: - of agricultural products in larger markets for bringing together smaller amounts of produce for greater conveyance in buying by the wholesale dealers, transporting and processing and for getting better economy. Grading is the sorting of agricultural produce into different groups on the basis of size, variety, taste, quality, colour etc. This is needed to maintain uniformity between markets, storing products of similar grade and understanding market values. | |
| | | Sankar™ -Dark ray Admin
Number of posts : 1067 Age : 33 Registration date : 2007-12-12
| Subject: Re: EE Notes Thu Dec 27, 2007 8:40 am | |
| 2. Storage, processing and preservation Processing is the conversion of farm produce into more consumable form, such as conversion of wheat into flour, preparation of butter, cheese, ghee and milk powder etc from milk, hulling of paddy into rice etc in order to protect the food from spoiling agents, retain its quality, taste, the nutritional value etc conserve surplus produce, reduce the work at home and for easy use.a) REFRIGERATION: - Keeping the food in low temperature so that the micro-organisms cannot grow, but are not killed and is in an inactive stage. By the return of normal temperature the enzyme activity is regained. b) CANNING: -Foods are placed in jars or cans free of cracks or bulging lids and is heated to a temperature that destroys micro-organisms and deactivates enzymes. This heating and later cooling forms a vacuum seal which prevents other organisms from contaminating the food within the jar or can. High acid foods such as fruits and tomatoes can be processed or canned in boiled water and stored well for 12 to 18 months. Low acid foods like vegetables and meat must be processed in a pressure canner at 240oF and stored well for 2 to 5 years. c) DRYING: -for preserving most of the perishable food items where moisture plays an important role in the change of state and quality of food item. Drying removes moisture from the foods, so that microorganisms cannot grow and enzyme action is stopped. d) SALTING AND PUTTING IN STRONG SUGAR SYRUPS: -Is useful in the preservation of perishable foods where water from the body of microorganisms is passed into the salt or sugar solution and thus the microorganisms are killed. e) ADDING PRESERVATES like sulphur dioxide, sodium nitrate, Butylated hydroxytoluene. f) BIOCIDES SPRAYS OR FUMIGENTS before storage of the grain, the storage bags and storage rooms should be treated with suitable insecticides, biocides etc so that the attack of grains by pests can be reduced. 3.TRANSPORTATION: - is also an important aspect of management of food produce.a. Quick transportation to prevent spoilage, to assure availability in far off places in the country and to provide proper price of his produce to the farmers. Special trains are being run to assure quick transportation of fruits and vegetables. b. Refrigerated trucks and railcars, air tight storage facilities and hermetically sealed cans that are impervious to external destructive agents such as oxygen, light, insects and rodents in vehicles etc are available. c.Providing opportunities for establishing super markets and farmers markets at major transportation stops in a number of countries. d.Funds like rural transportation access incentive programmes and clean fuel grants will help in improving management of agriculture produce. What are the problems related with the management of agricultural produce?
- Product
loss during storing, transportation etc.
- Grains
and cereals attacked by rats, birds etc and subjected to heavy rains etc during transportation through railways, trucks etc.
- Attack
of the stored food grains by pests like mites, beetles,
- Spoilage
of food by bacteria, fungi etc.
- Decay
of food due to low shelf life.
- Poor
storage facility and leaky bags and containers, which allows moisture and air to get in and cause damage such as sprouting, discoloration and caking.
- Careless
handling of produce and gunny bags by laborers, or porters.
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